The theatre of the war to which most of the rest of this work will be devoted, lies between the rivers Bug and Vistula on one side, and the Niemen on the other. The south-eastern boundary of this area may be taken as a line joining Grodno to the point on the Bug where that river ceased to be the northern frontier of Gallicia. The north-western side abuts on the Baltic Sea. Within these boundaries lay a country for the most part flat, marshy, and thickly wooded – a country resembling, except in the last respect, the broads of Suffolk and Norfolk. There are no heights of any importance, and it is only in the north-western corner, from Graudenz on the Vistula to Marienburg, and for a few miles to the east, towards Hohenstein, that it is possible to describe the country as anything but an undulating plain. Here the underlying rock of the Polish plain crops out, and gives rise to hills which, in places, reach an elevation of 500 to 700 feet above the sea, amongst which are imbedded the lakes about Osterode, Pr. Holland, and Mohrungen. The bulk of the military operations of 1807 occurred in the flat country farther east. Across this tract, in a direction but slightly north of east, there extends from near the Vistula about Graudenz to the Niemen south of Kowno, a broad belt of lakes and marshes of all sizes and shapes. Individual lakes attain in places a length of 8 or 10 miles; chains of lakes with narrow strips of land between them extend to much greater distances. Some of the lakes are long and narrow, others of fantastic trace, with long, finger-like bays protruding into the country in all directions. The belt of lakes, roughly speaking, averages 25 miles in breadth, and includes hundreds of sheets of water and marsh, varying in size from the lakes above described to mere ponds, which could only be shown on a very large scale map.

The forests, which in ancient times clothed the whole of this country, had, in 1807, and even now have, only partially been cleared. It was often, for a distance of many miles, impossible to find an area sufficiently clear of continuous forest to allow of the deployment of considerable forces. The great forest of Johannisburg extended, almost continuously, for 45 miles north of the upper Narew, with a breadth varying from 6 to 15 miles.

The principal waterways of this tract were the following: The Vistula, rising in the Carpathian Mountains, is, even at Warsaw, a large stream with a bed of several hundred yards in breadth. From Warsaw to a point some 20 miles below Thorn (a distance of nearly 130 miles as the crow flies) the river flows generally north-west between low banks, in a broad marshy bed, studded with innumerable islands. At this point it turns sharply to a direction slightly east of north, the right bank begins to acquire some height and, in the neighbourhood of Graudenz, rises to the dignity of a range of hills. Some 30 miles south of the Gulf of Danzig, the stream divides, the right branch flowing north-east and falling into the Frisches-Haff, the great lagoon which stretches from 20 miles east of Danzig to Koenigsberg. The left branch flowing north nearly to the sea, again subdivides, part of it falling into the western end of the Frisches-Haff, the rest running west to Danzig, where it turns north into the Gulf of Danzig. The river and the Frisches-Half thus separate from the main land the long, low, narrow strip of land known as the Frische-Nehrung, in which a breach, at Pillau towards its north eastern extremity, affords an outlet to the sea for the lagoon and the waters which flow into it.

The principal affluent on the right bank of the Vistula is the Bug, which, after forming the northern boundary of Gallicia, joins the Vistula 18 or 20 miles below Warsaw. At Sierock, the Bug receives on its right hank another considerable stream, the Narew, which, flowing from the western frontier of Russia, as it was in 1806, passes Lomza, Nowogrod, Ostrolenka, and Pultusk. Both rivers are military obstacles of importance, subject to heavy floods in wet weather, fordable only in seasons of drought. [1] A short way below Ostrolenka, the river Omulew reaches the Narew; which again, a few miles above Pultusk, receives the Orezyc. Both are small streams with a course of 40 or 50 miles from the north-west. Close to its junction with the Vistula, the Bug is joined by the Ukra, a stream of somewhat greater importance which rises near Soldau, about 60 miles north.

The only other stream of the slightest importance which reaches the right bank of the Vistula, in the theatre of war, is the Drewenz, flowing from the Osterode lakes to the Vistula, above Thorn.

The Pregel, in so far as it concerns the campaign, flows west, past Wehlau, into the Frisches-Haff at Koenigsberg.

Two other rivers which played a great part in 1807 require mention. The Passarge, originating in the lakes south-east of Osterode, flows nearly due north to the Frisches-Haff near Braunsberg. In its upper course it is of importance only where it spreads out into lakes or marshes. Even in its lower reaches it is not a very important stream, and, except when in flood, is fordable in many places.

The Alle, starting not far from the source of the Passarge, flows generally parallel to it at a distance of 8 or 9 miles, up to a point just north of Guttstadt; there it turns to the north-east, and, flowing in a tortuous course past Heilsberg, Bartenstein, and Schippenbeil, it joins the Pregel at Wehlau, 3o miles east of Koenigsberg. It is a more considerable stream than the Passarge, and, even as high up as Heilsberg, it is only fordable after a drought.

The tributaries of the rivers which have been described were in no case of importance, from a military point of view, in themselves; they became so only from their connexion with the marshes, which they fed or partially drained.

The general features of this country were plains of sand, or of mud in wet weather, intermixed with heaths, bogs, forests, lakes, and morasses.

Across this area there passed no metalled road; the best of the communications were mere banks of earth, not even revetted except where their passage across marshes rendered it impossible to maintain them without artificial support. By the droughts of summer or the frosts of winter, these so-called roads were hardened to a consistency which allowed of the passage of artillery with as much ease as is ever possible where unmetalled roads have to be used. When soaked with rain, or dissolved by thaws, they became almost impassable. Napoleon jokingly said that in Poland he had discovered a new element – mud. In wet weather the slush attained a depth to be measured in feet, not in inches. In December, 1806, the infantry sank to their knees, often deeper, in the soft roads; the horses to their hocks; the guns to their axles: sometimes even guns absolutely disappeared in the clayey mire. Double and quadruple teams could not drag them along as fast as the 1-1/4 miles an hour which the infantry with infinite labour could cover. [2]

The best of the roads were such as have been described, the worst were mere tracks leading from one village to another. The four principal reads between the Vistula and the Pregel were—

     (1)  From Danzig to Warsaw by the right bank of the Vistula;

     (2)  From Danzig to Koenigsberg by Dirschau, Elbing, and Braunsberg, not far south of the Frisches-Haff;

     (3)  From Warsaw to Koenigsberg by Sierock, Pultusk, Makow, Prasznitz, Willemburg, Bartenstein, Preussisch Eylau, and Kreuzberg;

     (4)  The road from Pultusk to Ostrolenka, Lomza, and thence towards St. Petersburg.

The more unfavourable portion of the theatre was the southern half, inhabited by Poles. It was devoid of large towns, sparsely populated, backward in every respect. Farther north, the names of the villages and towns indicate the German origin of the population. Large industrial villages were comparatively frequent and there was a general air of prosperity which was lacking in the country of the Poles. “Old Prussia offers, compared with Poland, the greatest triumph of civilisation over barbarism and of light over darkness. On one side numerous industrial wealthy towns, rich farms, and admirable cultivation; on the other, paltry hamlets, huts side by side with a palace: yet there is no difference in the soil. Customs, government, religion, these are what constitute nations.” [3]

The climate of this tract is inhospitable. The icy blasts, which reach it from the frozen north, produce in winter a climate almost arctic in its severity. In summer the heat is great, for Europe, though of short duration. Hot days are succeeded by damp cool nights, a condition of climate resulting in the prevalence of fevers. The dampness of the country, especially in the autumn and spring, its want of a well-defined watershed, and the consequent frequency of marshes and of sluggish streams, choked with the decaying débris of the forests, render it unhealthy and malarious. Of every 196 sick in the French hospitals in 1807, as many as 105 were cases of fever. [4]

In connexion with military operations it is not so much the terrain that is of importance in Poland as the climatic and seasonal conditions. [5] In summer the country is open, and practicable in all directions for all arms. The difficulty in operations arises from the often oppressive heat. In winter, when every lake, pond, marsh, and river is locked in the embrace of severe frost, these features, as obstacles, are obliterated. The only hindrances to progress are the forests, the snow, and the severity of the cold. In spring and autumn, rain swells the lakes and the rivers, and the roads are almost impracticable for the passage of wheeled traffic, owing to the sea of mud which covers them. [6]

Much of what has been said regarding the character of the country beyond the Vistula applies equally to that between the Oder and the Vistula.

Within the theatre of operations, when the French reached Warsaw, there were still four fortresses in the possession of Prussia.

     1.  Danzig, on the left bank of the Vistula near its mouth. The strength of this place will be fully dealt with when the siege is described.

     2. Koenigsberg, at the mouth of the Pregel, the capital of old Prussia, a poorly fortified city but an immense depôt of stores of all sorts.

     3. Pillau, a fortified pentagon commanding the narrow outlet from the Frisches-Haff to the Baltic.

     4. Graudenz, a fort situated to the north of the town of the same name, important as commanding a principal passage of the Lower Vistula. It held out against the French throughout the campaign. It was too small to be of great value, and too much isolated. The siege was not worth pressing with any great vigour, seeing that it was easy to mask the place with a comparatively small force.

[1]  The united stream below Sierock is sometimes spoken of as the Narew, sometimes as the Bug. The latter seems more correct, the Bug being the larger stream, and it is adopted in this work. [Back to paragraph text.]

[2]  The following references to the works of writers who took part in the campaign, will serve to show the terrible condition of the communications in open weather.
     De Fezensac’s account of his journey to make explanations to Napoleon on behalf of Ney. He started on the 15th January in wet weather; his conveyance broke down, and he had to go for miles at a footpace with wretched horses. Then came frost on the 17th. He had to cross the Bug in a boat on the 18th, as the bridge had been broken by the floating ice (pp. 134-135).
     Bernadotte, writing of the operations towards Soldau in December, says, “The roads were frightful; the artillery could not follow, and one marched all day to cover three or four leagues” (7-1/2 miles) (Report on 1st Corps, Arch. Hist. ).
     “The Geld on which we were about to fight was converted into a lake of mud, where soldiers and horses could scarcely march” (Lannes’ report on Pultusk, Arch. Hist. ).
     “The country over which the army passed (25th December) was clayey and marshy, the roads were frightful. Horsemen, infantry, and artillery could only get over them in the face of almost insurmountable difficulties. It took two hours to march a short league” (2-1/2 miles) (Davout, p, 132).
     “We fought and marched in mud; we should have died of cold and misery without movement” (Comeau, p. 288). [Back to paragraph text.]

[3]  Jomini (Vie de Napoleon, ii. 354). [Back to paragraph text.]

[4]  Daru quoted by Dumas, at p. 487, vol. xix. [Back to paragraph text.]

[5]  The winter of 1806-7 was exceptional. Comparatively mild autumn weather, alternating with frosts, lasted far later than usual. The following account of the weather, during the campaign, is abstracted from the writings of persons who went through it, chiefly from the correspondence of Napoleon.
     “The weather, which had been magnificent during the month of October, and the first part of November, (then) became horrible. It rained and snowed incessantly. Provisions became very scarce; no more wine, hardly any beer, and what there was exceedingly bad, muddy water, no bread, and quarters for which we had to fight with the pigs and the cows” (Marbot, i. 240).
     On the 18th November, 1806, no frost, sunshine every day, the roads too heavy to allow the Emperor to travel, except in country conveyances. Duroc’s carriage overturned in the mud (Corr. 11,497).
     Early in December, bright, dry, cold weather (Larrey, iii. 22).
     15th December. – No frost, sunshine every day (Corr. 11,494).
     17th December. – Thaw rendering roads very heavy (Corr. 11,497).
     26th December. – Complete thaw for last two days (Rapp, p. 127, and others).
     31st December. – Frost set in again (Larrey, iii. 61).
     8th January. – Alternate snow and thaw (Corr, 11,584).
     1st to 10th February. – Frost and snow (all authorities).
     10th February. – Thaw set in (Larrey, iii. 61).
     17th February. – Cold has ceased, and snow melted (Corr. 11,822).
     18th February. – Rain and thaw. April weather (Corr. 11,823).
     21st February. – Alternate frosts and thaw (Corr. 11,845).
     26th February. – Loamy ground so slippery from thaw as to render cavalry and artillery useless (Wilson, p. 246).
     28th February. – Frosts and thaw alternately (Corr, 11,907).
     17th March. – Cold weather again. Two feet of snow in last three or four days (Corr. 12,064).
     2nd April. – Weather flue, but still cold. Three or four degrees of frost (Corr. 12,263).
     6th April – Freezing hard (Corr. 12,322).
     17th April. – Raining (Corr. 12,394).
     21st April – Frost. January weather (Corr. 12,437).
     2nd May. – Fine. Leaves coming out. (Corr. 12,505).
     16th May. – Weather like April in France (Corr, 12,593).
     10th June. – Rain at night (Larrey, iii. 78).
     14th June. – Hot days, cool damp nights (Larrey, p. 84). [Back to paragraph text.]

[6]  “It has never yet,” says Von der Goltz, “occurred to any one to write a strategy and tactics for the different seasons of the year; and yet their influence is certainly quite as great as that of terrain, which has often been treated so longwindedly” (Nation in Arms, p. 327).  The remark applies with special force to Poland. [Back to paragraph text.]